Publication of the second edition of Gerlyver Kescows in printed form is expected once the new Gerlyver Brâs has been finalized. Meanwhile the full text of the Grammar Words section appears below. This may be modified from time to time in the light of comments. So if you are supportive of revived traditional Cornish and the Kernowek Standard spelling system, please let us know in the event you find any errors or think something might be improved.
Last updated: 25 January 2024 (18:00)
GRAMMAR WORDS
Here you will find many words that are best learned as grammar. The list includes particles, pronouns and other ‘pronominals’, inflecting prepositions, conjunctions, and question words. Some technical language has been used in order to describe them in a small compass. Consult your textbook if in doubt, or check with your teacher.
Particles and particle phrases
Some correspond to English relative pronouns, relative adverbs, subordinating conjunctions
a2 (particle is dropped before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos)
Links subject or object of relative clause to clause verb; links subject of nominal sentence to its inflected verb; links fronted complement to inflected forms of bos (particle frequently dropped with verb remaining in 2nd state); introduces inflected verb of question beginning with question word or phrase in subject or object relationship; may introduce inflected verb of question beginning with question word or phrase in oblique relationship (replacing y5); may introduce inflected verb after pynag in oblique relationship (replacing may5)
a2
Introduces inflected verb of ‘yes/no’ question (particle is dropped before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos)
a2
Optionally used before noun of address (no mutation if proper name)
a ny2
Introduces inflected verb of interrogative negative verbal sentence
a nyns
Replaces ny2 before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos
an pëth a2
Means ‘what’ introducing relative clause, and sometimes extended to introduce indirect question (more regularly introduced by pëth a2)
ass
Replaces assa2 before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos and also before w (< gw) of inflected forms of gwil
assa2
Introduces inflected verb to express wonder / admiration
bydnar re2
Used optatively with subjunctive verb to express a negative wish (in non-literary usage this is confined to present subjunctive of bos)
bys may5
Means ‘until’ (when future reference, subjunctive verb required)
bys mayth
Replaces bys may5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
bys na2
Means ‘until … not’ (when future reference, subjunctive verb required)
bys nag
Replaces bys na2 before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos
bÿth [ma] na2
Emphatically replaces [ma] na2
bÿth [ma] nag
Replaces bÿth [ma] na2 before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos
bÿth na2
Emphatically negates imperative verb
erna2 / ernag
See Subordinating conjunctions below
hag a2
Replaces a2 to link subject or object of relative clause to clause verb with clearer distinction from nominal sentence (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos)
in udn2
Precedes verb-noun to form adverbial present participle (collateral action regarded as manner in which main action is performed) – note that such a present participle cannot take an object or itself be modified adverbially See also inflecting preposition in dadn2
kebmys a2
Means ‘as much / many as’ (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos) Note that kebmys dell2 may equally be used
kenyver a2
Means ‘as many as’ (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos) Note that kenyver dell2 may equally be used
le may5
Means ‘where’ introducing relative clause of place, either without specific antecedent or to reinforce sense after specific antecedent
le mayth
Replaces le may5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
ma
Replaces may5 with infixed pronoun and before na2 Note that ma na2 is usually simplified to na2, except when ma na2 introduces a negative result clause
-ma
Means ‘this’ (demonstrative – attaches to last word of noun ‘string’)
This particle is enclitic on the preceding word, meaning the vowel is pronounced short.
mar ny2 / mar nyns
See Subordinating conjunctions below
may5 (ma when followed by na)
Introduces relative clause for antecedent that is neither subject nor object of that clause (literal meaning is ‘where’); introduces result clause (it is especially common to employ a comma before it in this usage); introduces purpose clause with subjunctive verb (frequently gallos) – in this usage it is often reinforced with preceding rag (see below)
mayth
Replaces may5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
myns a2
Means ‘all who / that’ introducing relative clause referring to people or things and ‘how much / how many’ as an alternative to pygebmys a2 introducing an indirect question after godhvos (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos)
na2
Negates imperative verb; negates inflected verb of causal, concessive, result, or temporal clause; negates inflected verb echoing verb of question, or command, or assertion, or in yes/no question tag; introduces negative indirect statement with inflected verb; replaces a2 to introduce negative relative clause and in negative questions; replaces y5 in some negative questions
See also na2 at Subordinating conjunctions below
-na
Means ‘that’ (demonstrative – attaches to last word of noun ‘string’)
This particle is enclitic on the preceding word, meaning the vowel is pronounced short.
nag
Replaces na2 before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos
namna2
Means ‘almost’ before inflected verb
namnag
Replaces namna2 before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos
nans (nanj)
Used before yw and o with sense 'by now / by then, ago'
neb a2
Means ‘who(m)’ / ‘which’ introducing relative clause referring to people or things (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos) where technically a2 alone would suffice, probably under influence of English grammar – unlike a2 it may be preceded by preposition
neb may5
Means ‘to whom / which’ referring to people or things (compare neb a2)
neb mayth
Replaces neb may5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
ny2
Negates inflected main verb of verbal sentence; in conditional sentence negates inflected verbs of protasis (if introduced by mar) and apodosis; replaces y5 (actual or notional) in some negative questions
nyns (nynj)
Replaces ny2 before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos
ow4
Precedes verb-noun to form adjectival phrase, so called ‘present participle’
owth
Replaces ow4 before vowel / h
pan lies + singular noun pynag a2
Means ‘however many’
More properly used with may5 rather than a2 when relationship is oblique
pan lies torn pynag a2
Means ‘however often’
More properly used with may5 rather than a2 when relationship is oblique
peskytter (pescotter) may5
Means ‘as soon as’
May be replaced colloquially by peskytter dell2
peskytter (pescotter) mayth
Replaces peskytter may5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
May be replaced colloquially by peskytter dell2
pesqweyth [oll] may5 (ma when followed by na)
Means ‘whenever (multiple occasions)’
May be replaced colloquially by pesqweyth a2 if verb is indicative or pesqweyth dell2 if verb is subjunctive
pesqweyth [oll] mayth
Replaces pesqweyth [oll] may5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
May be replaced colloquially by pesqweyth a2 if verb is indicative or pesqweyth dell2 if verb is subjunctive
pëth a2
Means ‘which’ introducing relative clause when a whole proposition is the antecedent (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before inflected form of bos / mos)
Not to be confused with pëth a2 in a question, direct or indirect
pùppynag may5 (ma when followed by na)
Means ‘wherever’
pùppynag mayth
Replaces pùppynag may5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
pùppynag oll a2, pynag a2
Means ‘whatever, whichever, whoever’ (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before inflected form of bos / mos, sometimes also before consonant but mutation remains)
pygebmys … pynag a2
Means ‘however much’
More properly used with may5 rather than a2 when relationship is oblique
pyneyl pynag a2
Means ‘whichever’ (of two) (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before inflected form of bos / mos, sometimes also before consonant but mutation remains)
pypynag [oll] a2
Means ‘whatever, whichever’ (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before inflected form of bos / mos, sometimes also before consonant but mutation remains)
pypynag oll may5 (ma when followed by na)
Means ‘wherever’
pypynag oll mayth
Replaces pypynag oll may5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
pyw pynag a2
Means ‘whoever’ (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before inflected form of bos / mos, sometimes also before consonant but mutation remains)
Note also adjectivals pynag oll (preceding noun) and neb / pan / pana2 … pynag (with noun in middle of phrase)
rag may5
Introduces purpose clause with subjunctive verb (frequently gallos)
rag mayth
Replaces rag may5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
rag na2
Introduces negative purpose clause with subjunctive verb (frequently gallos)
rag nag
Replaces rag na2 before vowel of inflected form of mos
re2 (b of inflected form of bos resists mutation)
Replaces a2 to link subject or object of relative clause to its preterite clause verb yielding present perfect sense; replaces a2 to link subject of nominal sentence to its preterite verb yielding present perfect sense; replaces y5 to introduce affirmative direct or indirect statement with preterite verb yielding present perfect sense; used optatively with subjunctive verb to express a wish (in non-literary usage this is confined to present subjunctive of bos)
res (rej)
Replaces re2 before preterite form of mos
seul a2
Means ‘such as’ introducing relative clause (a2 of particle phrase is dropped before vowel of inflected form of bos / mos)
unweyth mar ny2 / unweyth mar nyns
See Subordinating conjunctions below
unweyth na2
See Subordinating conjunctions below
y5
Introduces inflected main verb of affirmative verbal sentence; introduces inflected verb of question beginning with question word or phrase in oblique relationship (but often replaced by a2); introduces affirmative indirect statement with inflected verb; precedes unpropped infixed pronoun in affirmative subordinate clause not otherwise requiring a particle
yn5
Converts adjective explicitly into adverb
yth (th’)
Replaces y5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
Personal pronouns
First person singular
First person singular
avy
Optionally replaces vy as subject after ‘endingless’ preterites deuth, dug, êth, gwrug, also when reinforcing (for greater emphasis)
’m
Means ‘me’ (infixed direct or indirect object after particles a2, na2, ny2, re2, y5)
ma (always unstressed)
Means ‘I’ (suffixed as subject after verb; fusion causes sound / spelling changes)
ma vy (ma always unstressed)
Replaces ma or vy as subject after verb, for added emphasis; fusion causes sound / spelling changes
me
Optionally replaces my as subject of nominal sentence / infinitive construction or after non-inflecting preposition
my
Means ‘I’, ‘me’ (independent)
vy
Means ‘I’, ‘me’ (as subject after verb, as object after verb where grammar permits, or reinforcing)
Second person singular
dhejy
Replaces ta or jy as subject after verb or reinforcing, for added emphasis
jy
Means ‘you’ one person familiar (as subject after verb, as object after verb where grammar permits, or reinforcing)
sy
Optionally replaces jy, especially when reinforcing inflected preposition
ta (always unstressed)
Means ‘you’ one person familiar (suffixed as subject after verb; fusion causes sound / spelling changes)
tejy
Replaces ta or jy as subject after verb or reinforcing (spelled ta jy if fusion causes sound / spelling changes), for added emphasis
te (che)
Optionally replaces ty
’th5
Means ‘you’ one person familiar (infixed direct or indirect object after particles a2, na2, ny2, re2, y5)
ty
Means ‘you’ one person familiar (independent)
Third person singular
e
Variant of ev occurring especially as grammatical object after imperative and as logical subject or object after forms of y’m beus
eev ‖
Replaces ev as subject after verb or reinforcing, for added emphasis
ev
Means ‘he’, ‘him’; ‘it’ male reference, masculine reference + tra + fact, verbal action, result of action (independent, as subject after verb, as object after verb where grammar permits, or reinforcing)
hy
Means ‘she’, ‘her’; ‘it’ female reference, feminine reference + time, weather, circumstance, condition (independent, as subject after verb, as object after verb where grammar permits, or reinforcing)
hyhy ‖
Replaces hy as subject after verb or reinforcing, for added emphasis
’n
Means ‘him’; ‘it’ male reference, masculine reference + tra + fact, verbal action, result of action (infixed direct or indirect object after particles a2, na2, ny2, re2, y5)
’s
Means ‘her’; ‘it’ female reference, feminine reference + time, weather, circumstance, condition (infixed direct or indirect object after particles a2, na2, ny2, re2, y5)
va (always unstressed)
Optionally replaces ev as subject after verb
beuva (and mutated forms) is usually written as a single word by analogy with beuma, otherwise va is usually written separately
First person plural
’gan (may be shortened to ’n in elevated style)
Means ‘us’ (infixed direct or indirect object after particles a2, na2, ny2, re2, y5)
ny
Means ‘we’, ‘us’ (independent, as subject after verb, as object after verb where grammar permits, or reinforcing)
nyny ‖
Replaces ny as subject after verb or reinforcing, for added emphasis
Second person plural
’gas (may be shortened to ’s in elevated style)
Means ‘you’ one person polite / more than one person (infixed direct or indirect object after particles a2, na2, ny2, re2, y5)
why
Means ‘you’ one person polite / more than one person (independent, as subject after verb, as object after verb where grammar permits, or reinforcing)
Colloquially why may replace ty
whywhy ‖
Replaces why as subject after verb or reinforcing, for added emphasis
Third person plural
anjy
Optionally replaces y (independent or as object after verb where grammar permits)
’s
Means ‘them’ (infixed direct or indirect object after particles a2, na2, ny2, re2, y5)
y
Means ‘they’, ‘them’ (independent, as subject after verb, as object after verb where grammar permits, or reinforcing)
ynsy
Replaces y when reinforcing (for added emphasis)
Possessive pronouns (also used as logical object of verb-noun)
First person singular
ow3
Means ‘my (me)’
Second person singular
dha2
Means ‘your (you)’ one person familiar
Third person singular
y2
Means ‘his (him)’; its male reference, masculine reference + tra + fact, verbal action, result of action
hy3
Means ‘her’; ‘its’ female reference, feminine reference + time, weather, circumstance, condition
First person plural
agan (gàn)
Means ‘our (us)’
Second person plural
agas (gàs)
Means ‘your (you)’ one person polite / more than one person
Third person plural
aga3 (gà3)
Means ‘their (them)’
Contracted forms with a2 ‘from’/ ‘of’, dhe2 ‘to’, in ‘in’; ha ‘and / as / with’, na ‘nor’
First person singular
a’m, dhe’m, i’m; ha’m, na’m
Second person singular
a’th5, dhe’th5, i’th5; ha’th5, na’th5
Third person singular (masculine)
a’y2, dh’y2; ha’y2, na’y2
Third person singular (feminine)
a’y3, dh’y3; ha’y3, na’y3
First person plural
a’gan, dh’agan, i’gan; ha’gan, na’gan
Second person plural
a’gas, dh’agas, i’gas; ha’gas, na’gas
Third person plural
a’ga3, dh’aga3, i’ga3; ha’ga3, na’ga3
The personal and possessive pronouns are quite complex. Please bear in mind that basic forms given in the English-Cornish section are meant as a springboard only.
Other pronominals
Related adjectives and quantifiers are also given here for convenience
an aral the other [one]
an eyl + following noun the one (as opposed to the other)
an eyl ... hy ben the one ... the other (reciprocal) specifically female / feminine reference
an eyl ... y gela the one ... the other (reciprocal)
an keth(2) + following noun / pronoun / numeral (ha, dell2) the same (as)
There is no grammatical mutation after an keth. Second State of gw and m is optional. The phrase an keth before a noun is often combined with demonstrative particle -ma or demonstrative particle -na after the noun.
Though classified here as a pronominal for convenience, an keth is not correctly used as a stand-alone phrase without following noun etc.
an keth hebma / hedna the same one / thing male reference, masculine reference
an keth hobma / hodna the same one / thing female reference, feminine reference
an keth re the same ones
an kethsam + following noun / pronoun / numeral (ha, dell2) the same (as) emphatic
There is no mutation after an kethsam.
an re + following adj / adv / prepositional phrase / relative clause the ones
an re erel the others / other ones
an re-ma these [ones]
an re-na those [ones]
den one as subject of verb
den vëth with express negative anyone, with implied negative no one
hebma (hobma feminine) this [one]
hedna (hodna feminine) that [one]
hèm replaces hebma before yw / o
hèn replaces hedna before yw / o
hòm replaces hobma before yw / o
hòn replaces hodna before yw / o
honen + possessive pronoun self; + possessive pronoun, which also precedes noun own
honen-2 pref self-
honen oll [all] on [his etc] own, alone Preceded by possessive pronoun
kebmys [+ following noun] so much / many, as much / many
kebmys (avell / dell2) as much (as), as many (as)
ken onen another [one] (people, things); someone else (people)
kenyver + following noun every, any
kenyver onen everyone (people), every one (people, things), anyone (people), any one (people, things)
kenyver tra everything, anything Mutation after kenyver tra as for tra but relative clause preferred to attributive adj
kettep huny everyone (people only, not things)
kettep onen everyone (people, things), every one (things) (also used adverbially as in kettep onen)
kettep pedn everyone (people only, not things) (also used adverbially as in kettep pedn)
kettep tabm every bit
lies many
lies huny many (people only, not things)
lower onen (a2) quite a few
nagonen with express negative anyone (people), any (people, things)
neb + noun some; any (in non-negative question)
Note variant na(3) (nag before vowel). Despite appearances, this is not itself a negative. It is used in certain words and fixed phrases meaning ‘any’ with an express negative and ‘no’ with an implied negative. Occasionally it is used eliptically, for instance ha na hens ‘at the earliest’.
neb onen any one (people, things)
neb tra something; anything (in non-negative question) After neb tra a relative clause is preferred to an attributive adj
neb tra ken something else; anything else (in non-negative question)
nebes some, a little (of a thing); a few (people, things)
nebonen ‖ someone (people only), in non-negative question anyone (people only)
neppëth ‖ (nampëth) something; anything (in non-negative question)
onen one (indefinite: people, things)
peb See pùbonen
pob See pùbonen
pùb + noun / pronoun / numeral every, each
Though classified here as a pronominal for convenience, pùb is not correctly used as a stand-alone word without following noun etc.
pùb huny [oll] everyone (people only, not things)
pùb onen every one, each one (people, things)
pùbonen ‖ (peb, pob) everyone, each one (people)
pùbonen ‖ ken everyone else (people)
pùptra ‖ everything After pùptra a relative clause is preferred to an attributive adj
pùptra ‖ ken everything else
radn (a2) some
re (a2) some Only people, things, not uncountable quantity
tra vëth with express negative anything, with implied negative nothing
udn dra something (specific; used with verbs of knowing and telling)
very nebes very little (of a thing); very few (people, things)
vëth [oll] + preceding noun: with express negative any, with implied negative no
Though classified here as a pronominal for convenience, vëth is strictly an adverb (used adjectivally). It is enclitic on the preceding noun, meaning the vowel is pronounced short.
y gela the other [one] (paired with explicit or implicit an eyl)
Though classified here as a pronominal for convenience, vëth is strictly an adverb (used adjectivally). It is enclitic on the preceding noun, meaning the vowel is pronounced short.
y gela the other [one] (paired with explicit or implicit an eyl)
Inflecting prepositions
Basic meanings are given here. Prepositions are also used idiomatically, especially a2, dhe2, orth, wàr2.
a2 from; of (but not simple possession); about
ahanaf, ahanas, anodho, anedhy, ahanan (also = from here), ahanowgh, anodhans
Note less formal ahana vy, ahana jy, ahana ny, ahano’why
adhadn from beneath / under
adhanof, adhanos, adhadno, adhadny, adhanon, adhanowgh, adhadnans
Note less formal adhadn my, adhadn ty, adhadn ev, adhadn hy, adhadn ny, adhadn why, adhadn anjy
ages than (note also ages dell2 + verb)
agesof, agesos, agesso, agessy, ageson, agesowgh, agessans
Note less formal ages my, ages ty, ages ev, ages hy, ages ny, ages why, ages anjy
There is also a common non-inflecting short-form ès
Note ès dell2 + verb
a-ugh (a-ught) above, over
a-uhof, a-uhos, a-uho, a-ughty, a-uhon (also = above), a-uhowgh, a-ughtans
Note less formal a-ugh my, a-ugh ty, a-ugh ny, a-ugh why, a-ugh anjy
avell as (sometimes also substituted for ages / ès)
avellof, avellos, avello, avelly, avellon, avellowgh, avellans
Note less formal avell my, avell ty, avell ev, avell hy, avell ny, avell why, avell anjy
dhe2 to, for (destination), at (point in time)
dhybm (also dhybmo slight emphasis), dhis (dhys)
(also dhyso slight emphasis), dhodho, dhedhy, dhyn, dhywgh, dhedhans (dhodhans)
Note less formal dhe vy (dhèm), dhe jy, dhe ny, dhe why
dhia2 from (place); since
dhianodho, dhianedhy, dhianodhans
dhyrag in front of, before (place, occasionally time)
dhyragof, dhyragos, dhyragtho, dhyrygthy, dhyragon, dhyragowgh, dhyragthans
Note less formal dhyraga vy, dhyrag ev, dhyrag hy, dhyraga ny, dhyrago'why, dhyrag anjy
One may substitute arâg in high style, with corresponding inflection (the accent is dropped in inflected forms)
dhywar2 off
dhywarnaf, dhywarnas, dhywarnodho, dhywarnedhy, dhywarnan, dhywarnowgh, dhywarnodhans
Note less formal dhywara vy, dhywara ny, dhywaro'why, dhywar anjy
dhyworth (less formally dhort, optionally pronounced 'dhùrt’, sometimes so written) from (person, position)
dhyworthyf, dhyworthys, dhyworto, dhyworty, dhyworthyn, dhyworthowgh, dhywortans
Note less formal dhortam, dhortys, dhorto, dhorty, dhorta ny, dhorto’why, dhort anjy
dre2 (usually der before vowel pre-mutation, but note dre’n alongside der an) through; by (instrumentality)
dredhof, dredhos, dredho, dredhy (also = thereby), dredhon, dredhowgh, dredhans
Note less formal dredha vy, dredha ny, dredho'why, dredh’anjy
dres across, over; past; during
drestof, drestos, dresto, dresty, dreston, drestowgh, drestans
Note less formal dresta vy, dresta ny, dresto'why, drest’anjy
gans (less formal gèn) with (accompaniment); by (agency)
genef, genes, ganso, gensy, genen, genowgh, gansans
Note less formal gena vy (genam, genama), gena jy, gena ny, geno'why
heb without; not counting
hebof, hebos, heptho, hepthy, hebon, hebowgh, hepthans
Note less formal heba vy, heb ev, heb hy, heb ny, heb why, heb anjy
In some respects heb is treated as a negative. Thus unweyth ‘even’, vëth ‘any’ are used with it. Note also res yw dhodho heb y wil ‘he must not do it’.
in in, at (= inside); with verb of motion into; + noun predicatively after verb as
inof, inos, ino, inhy, inon, inowgh, inans (inhans)
Note less formal ina vy, ina ny, ino'why, in anjy
Note also Late Cornish et (before vowel) = in, etto = ino, ettans = inans
in dadn2 beneath, under Occasionally replaces in udn2
in danof, in danos, in dadno, in dadny, in danon, in danowgh, in dadnans
Note less formal in dadna vy, in dadn ev, in dadn hy, in dadna ny, in dadno'why, in dadn anjy
inter (intra) between; among (agreement, fixed idioms)
intredhof, intredhos, intredho, intredhy, intredhon, intredhowgh, intredhans
Note less formal inter my, inter ty, inter ny, inter why
orth (worth, wor') [up] against; at (when not inside); according to (some measure); orth replaces ow4 / owth when possessive pronoun used with verb-noun
orthyf, orthys, orto, orty, orthyn, orthowgh, ortans
Note less formal orta vy, ortys, orta ny, orto’why, ort anjy
rag + noun, pronoun for (purpose, cause); because of; from (barrier / protection); + verb-noun in order to; + infinitive construction, na-clause for (reason), because
ragof, ragos, ragtho, rygthy, ragon, ragowgh, ragthans
Note less formal raga vy, raga ny, rago'why, rag anjy
ryb beside, by
rybof, rybos, ryptho, rypthy, rybon (also = nearby), rybowgh, rypthans
Note less formal ryba (reba) vy, ryb ev, ryb hy, ryb ny, ryb why
wàr2 [up]on; on to with verb of motion; against (opposition)
warnaf, warnas, warnodho, warnedhy, warnan, warnowgh, warnodhans
Note less formal wara vy, wara ny, waro'why, war’anjy
warbydn (elevated style erbynn) against (motion, opposition); by (specific time)
wàr ow fydn, wàr dha bydn, wàr y bydn, wàr hy fydn, wàr agan pydn, wàr agas pydn, wàr aga fydn
warlergh behind with verb of motion; according to; + noun, pronoun, verb-noun, infinitive construction after
wàr ow lergh, wàr dha lergh, wàr y lergh, wàr hy lergh, wàr agan lergh, wàr agas lergh, wàr aga lergh
Co-ordinating conjunctions
Technically some of these are prepositions, but it seems best to treat all of them together
be va + adverbial pò + adverbial
Means ‘either ... or’
boneyl ... bò
Means ‘either ... or’
boneyl a2 + verb ... bò na2 + verb
Means ‘whether or not’
boneyl ... bò
Means ‘either ... or’
ha
Means ‘and’
also with prepositional force:
‘as’ (equality) + noun, pronoun (independent if personal)
‘with’ (attribute) + possessive pronoun + noun
ha ... ha
Means ‘both ... and’
hag
Replaces ha before vowel
kefrës ... ha
Means ‘both ... and’
mès
Means ‘but’ (sharper contrast than saw)
na
Means ‘nor’
When na introduces a statement, it must be followed by ny (nyns).
Sometimes the meaning is ‘or’ in the sense ‘regardless whether A or B’. Sometimes the sense is oblique as in gwell holergh na bÿth ‘better late than never’.
na ... na
Means ‘neither ... nor’
nag
Replaces na ‘nor’ before vowel
naneyl ... na
Means ‘neither ... nor’
pò (bò, also py when a straight this-or-that choice)
Means ‘or’
pò ... pò
either ... or
poken (boken)
Means ‘[or] [otherwise]’
rag
Means ‘for’ (reason)
saw
Means ‘but’ (more common than mès)
ytho (so)
Means ‘[and] so’
also adverbially of consequence
‘therefore, then’
Subordinating conjunctions
a4
Optionally replaces mar4 (unreal / improbable / impossible)
abàn2
Means ‘now that, since’ (temporal, causal)
bys pàn2
Means ‘until’ (when future reference, subjunctive verb required)
bÿth pàn2
Means ‘whenever’
dell2
Means ‘as’ (corresponding to fatell2 ‘how’); that (indirect statement– when negative, dell na2 usually replaced by na2 alone)
Informally dell2 may become der2 (dr’ before vowel in inflected form of bos / mos)
Note that particle re2 (with usual present perfect meaning) may be used between conjunction dell2 (not der2) and the verb
dhia bàn2
Means ‘since’ (temporal)
erna2
Means ‘until’ (when future reference, subjunctive verb required)
Note also Late Cornish tereba + infinitive construction = until with future reference. This construction can also be applied to erna.
ernag
Replaces erna2 before vowel in inflected form of bos / mos
fatell2 ‖
means ‘that’ (indirect statement, affirmative only)
ha
Introduces attendant circumstances phrase with noun / pronoun + adjectival or adverbial complement
[ha] kyn5
Means ‘even though’ (with imperfect subjunctive verb)
hedre2 ‖ (only with subjunctive of bos or bêwa; affirmative only)
Means ‘so long as, while’ (duration, not condition)
hag
Replaces ha before vowel
kepar dell2
Means ‘just as’ (more common than par dell2)
Note also Late Cornish pecar der2 (pecar dr’ before vowel in inflected form of bos / mos)
kepar ha pàn2
Means ‘[just] as if’ (with imperfect subjunctive verb)
kettel2
Means ‘as soon as’ (when future reference, subjunctive verb is required)
kyn5
Means ‘[al]though’
kyns ès dell2
Means ‘before’ (when future reference, subjunctive verb required)
kynth
Replaces kyn5 before vowel / h pre-mutation
mar4
Means ‘if’ (real or, with imperfect subjunctive verb, unreal / improbable / impossible); also ‘if / whether’ (indirect question)
For if-clauses see also dos in Key Verb Tables
mar na2
Optionally replaces mar ny2 (unreal / improbable / impossible)
This must be the original construction, but mar ny2 has become much more common
mara4
Optionally replaces mar4
This is the usual form before the imperfect subjunctive of bos
maras
Replaces mara before vowel in inflected form of bos / mos
mars
Replaces mar4 before vowel in inflected form of bos / mos
marnas
Means ‘unless’ (followed by nominal sentence structure which is replaced by verb preceded by particle y or yth as appropriate if adverbial intervenes; in either case the verb is subjunctive)
Note also Late Cornish lès ‘lest, in case’ (followed by nominal sentence structure; the verb is indicative)
na2
Optionally replaces mar ny2 (unreal / improbable / impossible)
Most commonly used as na ve ‘if it were not the case that’ followed by infinitive construction
pàn2 (pà)
Means ‘when’; ‘while’; ‘since’ (causal)
par dell2
Means ‘just as’ (stronger version of dell2)
rag dowt
Means ‘in case’ (with infinitive, infinitive construction or na-clause with subjunctive verb)
tell2
Optionally replaces fatell2 ‘that’ (indirect statement)
Informally tell2 may become ter2 (tr’ before vowel in inflected form of bos / mos)
unweyth a4
Optionally replaces unweyth mar4
unweyth mar4
Means ‘if only’ (with imperfect subjunctive verb when unreal / improbable / impossible but frequently replaced in this sense by unweyth a4)
unweyth mara4
Optionally replaces unweyth mar4
unweyth na2
Optionally replaces unweyth mar ny2 (unreal / improbable / impossible)
Most commonly used as unweyth na ve ‘if only it were not the case that’ followed by infinitive construction
Question words / phrases
a ble5 ‘from where’
dhe byw ‘to whom’
fatell2 ‖ before verb 'how'
fatl’ replaces fatla2 before vowel in inflected form of bos / mos
fatla2 ‘how’
gans pyw ‘by whom’
pan + adj ‘how’ (of unmeasurable degree)
pan + noun ‘what’
pan downder ‘how deep’
pan hirder ‘how long’ (space)
pan les ‘how wide’
pan lies (pan lower, py lies, pes) + singular noun ‘how many’
pan lower torn ‘how many times’
pan uhelder ‘how high’
pana2 + noun ‘what’
pana bellder ‘how long’ (time)
pana bris ‘how much’ (price)
pana dermyn ‘when’
pana re ‘what ones’
pana sort a2 + noun ‘what kind of’
pana vaner + noun ‘what kind of’
pandr’ replaces pandra2 before vowel in inflected form of bos
pandra2 ‘what’
pandr’orth + noun ‘what about’
pesqweyth (y5 / na2) ‘how often’
pëth ‘what’
peur5 (py eur5) ‘when’
In conversational Cornish py eur5 is usually understood to mean ‘what time (o’clock)’
ple5 (py le5) ‘where’
ple ma (py ma) ‘where is / are’
ple mowns y (py mowns y) ‘where are they’
pleth (py leth) otherwise replaces ple5 before vowel in inflected form of bos / mos
prag ‘why’
praga optionally replaces prag before na2 or when independent
py + adj ‘how’ (of immeasurable degree)
py + noun ‘what, which’
py par + noun ‘what kind of’
py re ‘which [ones]’, ‘what ones’
py seul ‘how much / many’ (of sth specific)
py seul pellder ‘how far’
py tyller ‘where’
pygebmys + singular noun or independent or as adv ‘how much’; + plural or collective noun or independent ‘how many (much)’
pygebmys hës ‘how long’ (space)
pyneyl 'which [one]' (of two)
pyw ‘who’
pywa optionally replaces pyw for emphasis or after preposition when independent
Other words / phrases
a’m govys
‘for my sake’
The phrase is not attested with other possessive pronouns
an(2)
‘the’ (for the mutation scheme with this word, consult your textbook – and note some exceptions to the basic rules)
dhe2 (seul2) + comp ... dhe2 (seul2) + comp ‘the more ... the more’, dhe2 + comp ... dhe le ‘the more ... the less’, dhe le... dhe2 + comp ‘the less ... the more’
govy (often introducing subordinate clause or verbal phrase)
‘oh dear!’
Personal forms: govy, gojy, goev, gohy, gony, gowhy, goy
kyn fe (focusing noun or adjectival / adverbial expression)
‘even’
maga5 + adj, adv
‘so’, ‘as’
mar2 + adj, adv
‘so’, ‘as’
ot (awot)
optionally replaces otta before vowels
otta (awotta)
‘here / there is / are’
Personal forms: otta vy (ottama), otta sy, otta va, otta hy, otta ny, otta why, ottensy
vÿth mar2 + adj, adv
‘ever so’